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Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1)
Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1)
RDP; MBD1; MDP; Dehydropeptidase-I; Microsomal dipeptidase; Renal dipeptidase
DPEP1 (EC 3.4.13.11) is a kidney membrane enzyme that hydrolyzes a variety of dipeptides and is implicated in renal metabolism of glutathione and its conjugates, e.g., leukotriene D4 (Kozak and Tate, 1982).
DPEP1 is responsible for hydrolysis of the beta-lactam ring of antibiotics, such as penem and carbapenem (Campbell et al., 1984). Earlier, beta-lactamase enzymes were thought to occur only in bacteria, where their probable function was in protecting the organisms against the action of beta-lactam antibiotics. These antibiotics exhibit selective toxicity against bacteria but virtual inertness against many eukaryotic cells (Adachi et al., 1990).
Organism species: Homo sapiens (Human)
PRODUCT TYPE
CATALOG NO.
PRODUCT NAME
APPLICATIONS
Proteins
U407Hu01
Recombinant Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) Positive Control; Immunogen; SDS-PAGE; WB.
NONE
Native Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) Bioactivity
Antibodies
MU407Hu21
Monoclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) WB; IHC; ICC; IP.
PU407Hu01
Polyclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) WB; IHC; ICC; IF.
NONE
Biotin Linked-Polyclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) ELISA(Det);IC; IH; IH(P); WB
NONE
APC Linked-Polyclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) IHC, WB
NONE
HRP Linked-Polyclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) Simple Western; WB
NONE
PE Linked-Polyclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) Flow Cytometry
NONE
FITC Linked-Polyclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) Flow Cytometry;ICC/IF
Assay Kits
KEU407Hu
ELISA Kit for Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for Antigen Detection
NONE
CLIA kit for Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) CLIA assay for Antigen Detection
Organism species: Mus musculus (Mouse)
PRODUCT TYPE
CATALOG NO.
PRODUCT NAME
APPLICATIONS
Proteins
NONE
Recombinant Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) Positive Control; Immunogen; SDS-PAGE; WB.
NONE
Native Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) Bioactivity
Antibodies
NONE
Monoclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) WB; IHC; ICC; IP.
NONE
Polyclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) WB; IHC; ICC; IF.
NONE
Biotin Linked-Polyclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) ELISA(Det);IC; IH; IH(P); WB
NONE
APC Linked-Polyclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) IHC, WB
NONE
HRP Linked-Polyclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) Simple Western; WB
NONE
PE Linked-Polyclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) Flow Cytometry
NONE
FITC Linked-Polyclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) Flow Cytometry;ICC/IF
Assay Kits
NONE
ELISA Kit for Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for Antigen Detection
NONE
CLIA kit for Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) CLIA assay for Antigen Detection
Organism species: Rattus norvegicus (Rat)
PRODUCT TYPE
CATALOG NO.
PRODUCT NAME
APPLICATIONS
Proteins
NONE
Recombinant Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) Positive Control; Immunogen; SDS-PAGE; WB.
NONE
Native Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) Bioactivity
Antibodies
NONE
Monoclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) WB; IHC; ICC; IP.
NONE
Polyclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) WB; IHC; ICC; IF.
NONE
Biotin Linked-Polyclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) ELISA(Det);IC; IH; IH(P); WB
NONE
APC Linked-Polyclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) IHC, WB
NONE
HRP Linked-Polyclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) Simple Western; WB
NONE
PE Linked-Polyclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) Flow Cytometry
NONE
FITC Linked-Polyclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) Flow Cytometry;ICC/IF
Assay Kits
NONE
ELISA Kit for Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for Antigen Detection
NONE
CLIA kit for Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) CLIA assay for Antigen Detection
Organism species: Canis familiaris; Canine (Dog)
PRODUCT TYPE
CATALOG NO.
PRODUCT NAME
APPLICATIONS
Proteins
NONE
Recombinant Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) Positive Control; Immunogen; SDS-PAGE; WB.
NONE
Native Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) Bioactivity
Antibodies
NONE
Monoclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) WB; IHC; ICC; IP.
NONE
Polyclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) WB; IHC; ICC; IF.
NONE
Biotin Linked-Polyclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) ELISA(Det);IC; IH; IH(P); WB
NONE
APC Linked-Polyclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) IHC, WB
NONE
HRP Linked-Polyclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) Simple Western; WB
NONE
PE Linked-Polyclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) Flow Cytometry
NONE
FITC Linked-Polyclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) Flow Cytometry;ICC/IF
Assay Kits
NONE
ELISA Kit for Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for Antigen Detection
NONE
CLIA kit for Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) CLIA assay for Antigen Detection
Organism species: Sus scrofa; Porcine (Pig)
PRODUCT TYPE
CATALOG NO.
PRODUCT NAME
APPLICATIONS
Proteins
NONE
Recombinant Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) Positive Control; Immunogen; SDS-PAGE; WB.
NONE
Native Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) Bioactivity
Antibodies
NONE
Monoclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) WB; IHC; ICC; IP.
NONE
Polyclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) WB; IHC; ICC; IF.
NONE
Biotin Linked-Polyclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) ELISA(Det);IC; IH; IH(P); WB
NONE
APC Linked-Polyclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) IHC, WB
NONE
HRP Linked-Polyclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) Simple Western; WB
NONE
PE Linked-Polyclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) Flow Cytometry
NONE
FITC Linked-Polyclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) Flow Cytometry;ICC/IF
Assay Kits
NONE
ELISA Kit for Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for Antigen Detection
NONE
CLIA kit for Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) CLIA assay for Antigen Detection
Organism species: Bos taurus; Bovine (Cattle)
PRODUCT TYPE
CATALOG NO.
PRODUCT NAME
APPLICATIONS
Proteins
NONE
Recombinant Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) Positive Control; Immunogen; SDS-PAGE; WB.
NONE
Native Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) Bioactivity
Antibodies
NONE
Monoclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) WB; IHC; ICC; IP.
NONE
Polyclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) WB; IHC; ICC; IF.
NONE
Biotin Linked-Polyclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) ELISA(Det);IC; IH; IH(P); WB
NONE
APC Linked-Polyclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) IHC, WB
NONE
HRP Linked-Polyclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) Simple Western; WB
NONE
PE Linked-Polyclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) Flow Cytometry
NONE
FITC Linked-Polyclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) Flow Cytometry;ICC/IF
Assay Kits
NONE
ELISA Kit for Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for Antigen Detection
NONE
CLIA kit for Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) CLIA assay for Antigen Detection
Organism species: Rhesus monkey (Simian)
PRODUCT TYPE
CATALOG NO.
PRODUCT NAME
APPLICATIONS
Proteins
NONE
Recombinant Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) Positive Control; Immunogen; SDS-PAGE; WB.
NONE
Native Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) Bioactivity
Antibodies
NONE
Monoclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) WB; IHC; ICC; IP.
NONE
Polyclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) WB; IHC; ICC; IF.
NONE
Biotin Linked-Polyclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) ELISA(Det);IC; IH; IH(P); WB
NONE
APC Linked-Polyclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) IHC, WB
NONE
HRP Linked-Polyclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) Simple Western; WB
NONE
PE Linked-Polyclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) Flow Cytometry
NONE
FITC Linked-Polyclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) Flow Cytometry;ICC/IF
Assay Kits
NONE
ELISA Kit for Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for Antigen Detection
NONE
CLIA kit for Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) CLIA assay for Antigen Detection
Organism species: Chicken (Gallus)
PRODUCT TYPE
CATALOG NO.
PRODUCT NAME
APPLICATIONS
Proteins
NONE
Recombinant Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) Positive Control; Immunogen; SDS-PAGE; WB.
NONE
Native Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) Bioactivity
Antibodies
NONE
Monoclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) WB; IHC; ICC; IP.
NONE
Polyclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) WB; IHC; ICC; IF.
NONE
Biotin Linked-Polyclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) ELISA(Det);IC; IH; IH(P); WB
NONE
APC Linked-Polyclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) IHC, WB
NONE
HRP Linked-Polyclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) Simple Western; WB
NONE
PE Linked-Polyclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) Flow Cytometry
NONE
FITC Linked-Polyclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) Flow Cytometry;ICC/IF
Assay Kits
NONE
ELISA Kit for Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for Antigen Detection
NONE
CLIA kit for Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) CLIA assay for Antigen Detection
Organism species: Ovis aries; Ovine (Sheep)
PRODUCT TYPE
CATALOG NO.
PRODUCT NAME
APPLICATIONS
Proteins
NONE
Recombinant Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) Positive Control; Immunogen; SDS-PAGE; WB.
NONE
Native Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) Bioactivity
Antibodies
NONE
Monoclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) WB; IHC; ICC; IP.
NONE
Polyclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) WB; IHC; ICC; IF.
NONE
Biotin Linked-Polyclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) ELISA(Det);IC; IH; IH(P); WB
NONE
APC Linked-Polyclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) IHC, WB
NONE
HRP Linked-Polyclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) Simple Western; WB
NONE
PE Linked-Polyclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) Flow Cytometry
NONE
FITC Linked-Polyclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) Flow Cytometry;ICC/IF
Assay Kits
NONE
ELISA Kit for Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for Antigen Detection
NONE
CLIA kit for Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) CLIA assay for Antigen Detection
Organism species: Oryctolagus cuniculus (Rabbit)
PRODUCT TYPE
CATALOG NO.
PRODUCT NAME
APPLICATIONS
Proteins
NONE
Recombinant Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) Positive Control; Immunogen; SDS-PAGE; WB.
NONE
Native Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) Bioactivity
Antibodies
NONE
Monoclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) WB; IHC; ICC; IP.
NONE
Polyclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) WB; IHC; ICC; IF.
NONE
Biotin Linked-Polyclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) ELISA(Det);IC; IH; IH(P); WB
NONE
APC Linked-Polyclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) IHC, WB
NONE
HRP Linked-Polyclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) Simple Western; WB
NONE
PE Linked-Polyclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) Flow Cytometry
NONE
FITC Linked-Polyclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) Flow Cytometry;ICC/IF
Assay Kits
NONE
ELISA Kit for Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for Antigen Detection
NONE
CLIA kit for Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) CLIA assay for Antigen Detection
Organism species: Cavia (Guinea pig )
PRODUCT TYPE
CATALOG NO.
PRODUCT NAME
APPLICATIONS
Proteins
NONE
Recombinant Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) Positive Control; Immunogen; SDS-PAGE; WB.
NONE
Native Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) Bioactivity
Antibodies
NONE
Monoclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) WB; IHC; ICC; IP.
NONE
Polyclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) WB; IHC; ICC; IF.
NONE
Biotin Linked-Polyclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) ELISA(Det);IC; IH; IH(P); WB
NONE
APC Linked-Polyclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) IHC, WB
NONE
HRP Linked-Polyclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) Simple Western; WB
NONE
PE Linked-Polyclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) Flow Cytometry
NONE
FITC Linked-Polyclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) Flow Cytometry;ICC/IF
Assay Kits
NONE
ELISA Kit for Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for Antigen Detection
NONE
CLIA kit for Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) CLIA assay for Antigen Detection
Organism species: Equus caballus; Equine (Horse)
PRODUCT TYPE
CATALOG NO.
PRODUCT NAME
APPLICATIONS
Proteins
NONE
Recombinant Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) Positive Control; Immunogen; SDS-PAGE; WB.
NONE
Native Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) Bioactivity
Antibodies
NONE
Monoclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) WB; IHC; ICC; IP.
NONE
Polyclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) WB; IHC; ICC; IF.
NONE
Biotin Linked-Polyclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) ELISA(Det);IC; IH; IH(P); WB
NONE
APC Linked-Polyclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) IHC, WB
NONE
HRP Linked-Polyclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) Simple Western; WB
NONE
PE Linked-Polyclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) Flow Cytometry
NONE
FITC Linked-Polyclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) Flow Cytometry;ICC/IF
Assay Kits
NONE
ELISA Kit for Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for Antigen Detection
NONE
CLIA kit for Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) CLIA assay for Antigen Detection
Organism species: Capra hircus; Caprine (Goat)
PRODUCT TYPE
CATALOG NO.
PRODUCT NAME
APPLICATIONS
Proteins
NONE
Recombinant Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) Positive Control; Immunogen; SDS-PAGE; WB.
NONE
Native Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) Bioactivity
Antibodies
NONE
Monoclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) WB; IHC; ICC; IP.
NONE
Polyclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) WB; IHC; ICC; IF.
NONE
Biotin Linked-Polyclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) ELISA(Det);IC; IH; IH(P); WB
NONE
APC Linked-Polyclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) IHC, WB
NONE
HRP Linked-Polyclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) Simple Western; WB
NONE
PE Linked-Polyclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) Flow Cytometry
NONE
FITC Linked-Polyclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) Flow Cytometry;ICC/IF
Assay Kits
NONE
ELISA Kit for Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for Antigen Detection
NONE
CLIA kit for Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) CLIA assay for Antigen Detection
Organism species: Pan-species (General)
PRODUCT TYPE
CATALOG NO.
PRODUCT NAME
APPLICATIONS
Proteins
NONE
Recombinant Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) Positive Control; Immunogen; SDS-PAGE; WB.
NONE
Native Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) Bioactivity
Antibodies
NONE
Monoclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) WB; IHC; ICC; IP.
NONE
Polyclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) WB; IHC; ICC; IF.
NONE
Biotin Linked-Polyclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) ELISA(Det);IC; IH; IH(P); WB
NONE
APC Linked-Polyclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) IHC, WB
NONE
HRP Linked-Polyclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) Simple Western; WB
NONE
PE Linked-Polyclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) Flow Cytometry
NONE
FITC Linked-Polyclonal Antibody to Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) Flow Cytometry;ICC/IF
Assay Kits
NONE
ELISA Kit for Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for Antigen Detection
NONE
CLIA kit for Dipeptidase 1, Renal (DPEP1) CLIA assay for Antigen Detection
Reference
"Cloning and structural analysis of genomic DNA for human renal dipeptidase." Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1172:181-183(1993) [PubMed ] [Europe PMC ] [Abstract ]
"Primary structure of human microsomal dipeptidase deduced from molecular cloning." J. Biol. Chem. 265:3992-3995(1990) [PubMed ] [Europe PMC ] [Abstract ]
"Gene structural analysis and expression of human renal dipeptidase." Biotechnol. Prog. 10:134-140(1994) [PubMed ] [Europe PMC ] [Abstract ]
"The status, quality, and expansion of the NIH full-length cDNA project: the Mammalian Gene Collection (MGC)." Genome Res. 14:2121-2127(2004) [PubMed ] [Europe PMC ] [Abstract ]
"Characterization of the glycosyl-phosphatidylinositol-anchored human renal dipeptidase reveals that it is more extensively glycosylated than the pig enzyme." Biochem. J. 265:429-433(1990) [PubMed ] [Europe PMC ] [Abstract ]
"Purification and characterization of human microsomal dipeptidase." J. Biochem. 105:957-961(1989) [PubMed ] [Europe PMC ] [Abstract ]
"Signal peptide prediction based on analysis of experimentally verified cleavage sites." Protein Sci. 13:2819-2824(2004) [PubMed ] [Europe PMC ] [Abstract ]
"Identification of membrane anchoring site of human renal dipeptidase and construction and expression of a cDNA for its secretory form." J. Biol. Chem. 265:15341-15345(1990) [PubMed ] [Europe PMC ] [Abstract ]
"Importance of Glu-125 in the catalytic activity of human renal dipeptidase." Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1163:42-48(1993) [PubMed ] [Europe PMC ] [Abstract ]
"Glycoproteomics analysis of human liver tissue by combination of multiple enzyme digestion and hydrazide chemistry." J. Proteome Res. 8:651-661(2009) [PubMed ] [Europe PMC ] [Abstract ]
"Crystal structure of human renal dipeptidase involved in beta-lactam hydrolysis." J. Mol. Biol. 321:177-184(2002) [PubMed ] [Europe PMC ] [Abstract ]
"The consensus coding sequences of human breast and colorectal cancers." Science 314:268-274(2006) [PubMed ] [Europe PMC ] [Abstract ]